River Valley Civilizations Essay - 726 Words

Ancient river valley civilizations are one of the earliest societies in the world. The rises of these ancient river valley civilizations started the first cradle of civilization. The Indus Valley Civilization, Ancient Egypt, Ancient Mesopotamia, and Ancient China are the earliest civilizations that were successful enough to make enough food for everybody. Every one of these civilizations had three things in common: they all had a special relationship with the river, they created their own writing system, and they all relied on trade. All river valley civilizations relied on the river that was near them. The snow from the mountains in the west of China created the two most important rivers in ancient China. In ancient China, people relied†¦show more content†¦In Ancient China, they developed a writing system for preservation. In China, people would use logograms, which are symbols that represent a word or a meaning.In the early days of the ancient Chinese civilization, people would write on oracle bone or tortoise shell.In Ancient India, writing systems were developed for recording data and information. The Indus script used signs and words and it was written from right to left. By 1800 BCE, the Indus valley civilizations started to fall and writing were often used anymore. Ancient Egyptians started to developed a writing system called, hieroglyphics because they needed a way to record important information. They believed that recording data and communicate information about government and religion was es sential. Scribes were only ones to write in hieroglyphics and were written from left to right or top to bottom. In Mesopotamia, people started developing a writing system to information. Mesopotamia created a writing system called, cuneiform. Mesopotamian scribes would record important dates and event, and position of the stars. These ancient civilizations started to create their own writing system to record history and communicate information. Ancient river valley civilizations economy were heavily relied on trade.In ancient China, people heavily relied on the silk road to trade.The silk road allowed China to communicate with other civilizations like India. The silk road were used to trade silk,Show MoreRelatedCompare Contrast Essay1519 Words   |  7 PagesMesopotamia: A Compare and Contrast Essay Com/170 Ancient Egypt and Ancient Mesopotamia: A Compare and Contrast Essay Ancient Egypt, known as â€Å"The Gift of the Nile,† and ancient Mesopotamia, known as the land â€Å"Between the Rivers,† were the first two civilizations developed by mankind. 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Reluctant Witnesses Children s Voices From The Civil...

In this historical text, Reluctant Witnesses: Children’s Voices from the Civil War, Emmy Werner retells the events of the Civil War through the eyes of children who are male, female, black, and white. Werner worked to sift through the reactions and experiences of the young men and women who were involved in the Civil War. Each chapter articulates a different portion of the battle and the events during the Civil War. Chapter two, five, six, eight, and nine capture the eye-witness accounts from young soldiers and young women who lived through the Battle of Shiloh, the Battle of Gettysburg, the siege of Vicksburg, the burning of Atlanta, and Sherman’s march to the sea. Chapter three, four, seven, and ten depict the responses the young children had at Andersonville, during the bread riots, the triumph at Washington D.C., and the voices of the former slaves of the south. Werner thrived to increase the knowledge on the involvement of children within the Civil War. 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Semi-Detailed Lesson Plan in Simple Past Tense free essay sample

At the end of the lesson, 80% of the students will be able to: A. Focus Skill a. Narrate past events using the simple past tense for of the verb B. Support Skills a. Make a chain story using the past tense of the verb b. Formulate sentences using the past tense of the verb II. Subject Matter: Grammar: Simple Past Tense pp. 90-91 Reference: New Horizons in English 3 III. Procedure: A. Daily Routine a. Classroom Management b. Checking of Attendance c. Review Read the paragraph and pick out the verb used in each sentence. The mayor is now signing the provisions while talking to his constituents inside his office about the new city ordinance. He is also warning his people about the spreading rumors in the never-ending corruptions. In connection to this, the mayor will sue anyone in the media who will be spreading the issue. Hence, the media practitioners exclaiming that the freedom of expressions should not be at stake. We will write a custom essay sample on Semi-Detailed Lesson Plan in Simple Past Tense or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page B. Presentation of the new lesson a. Elicitation The teacher asks a question and elicits answers from the students. 1. What did you do yesterday? 2. Where did you go last Sunday? . Discussion Study the following sentences and take note of the action expressed in each sentence. Possible Answers: 1. I answered my assignment yesterday. 2. We went to the church last Sunday. a. What are the verbs used in each sentence? b. What kind of action is expressed in the sentences? c. When did the actions happen? d. What tense of the verb is used? e. When do we use the past tense? f. How is the past tense of the verb formed? c. Generalization 1. The simple past tense is used to express an action which happened at a definite time in the past. . Regular verbs form their past tense by adding –d or –ed. 3. Irregular verbs form their past tense by changing the spelling of the verb. d. Practice Exercise/Drills Activity 1 Give the correct past tense form of the verb in the parenthesis. 1. Y esterday, Ms. Santos (tell) the class to form small groups for an activity. 2. Each group (prepare) something for the fun fair. 3. Karen (join) Amy and Debbie. 4. Everybody (work) silently until they (be) to come up with a proposal. Activity 2 Change the verbs in their past form. 1. The  morning starts with a flag ceremony. 2. After that, everyone goes out for their lessons. 3. The teacher begins the day’s activity with a prayer. 4. It is followed by checking the students’ attendance. 5. As the teacher starts the lesson, everyone pays attention. 6. Students participate actively in the recitation. 7. Teachers try their best to make the students learn. 8. The lesson ends with a quotation given by the teacher. 9. Students interpret what it means. 10. The teacher leaves the room feeling fulfilled. Activity 3 The following sentences tell a story. But some details are left out. Supply a sentence after each numbered sentence to fill up these details. 1. Mother woke up early one morning. 2. She fried some dried fish and eggs. 3. But she noticed something unusual that morning. 4. Mother opened the kitchen  door leading to the backyard. 5. She went straight to where the dog was. 6. Our dog was poisoned to death. IV. Assignment Write a short personal narrative of a past experience using the simple past tense form of the verb in ? crosswise. Prepared by: Cristobal, Arat, Manalata amp; Paras

Surviving Teenage Year Agenda Question free essay sample

What would you do if you discovered your teenager was using drugs or alcohol? * I would educate my teen about drugs through facts. Living the same standards of not using any drugs myself, would help the cooperation of my teen. Lastly I would notice my teen that I am worried about their condition. 2. What would you do if your teen spoke rudely to you? * Behavior such as this will not be tolerated. I will work to understand my teen’s frustration in my own behavior. It is also important to not show any negativity to the child. 3. What would you do if you did not like the way your teen dressed? * Understanding their perspective would be most important in this condition. As I know, soon they will be an adult; I will understand that they are expanding their relationship from me. Instead of confronting them immediately, I will try to understand the style of clothing teens appeal to during that period of time. We will write a custom essay sample on Surviving Teenage Year Agenda Question or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page 4. What would you do if you notice that your teen was depressed for a long period of time? Being present in their depression would improve teen’s trust towards your, making you an available choice for love and comfort. Listening to a teen is also important as they are willing to share. Their expression should not be ignored but instead, understood. 5. What kind of conflicts do you have with your parents? What can your parents do to improve the situation? What can you do? * Conflicts cross when I am judged by my characteristics. I think it’s important for my parents to give me some room to explore. If this deal is met I will try my best to cooperate to their demands.

Water Pollution in India Essay Example

Water Pollution in India Paper In a house that was near the Ganges River, there lived a wealthy family that was doing their chores. This family included a mother, father, and a boy. The boy in this family was named Catatonia meaning consciousness in English. While Catatonia was doing his daily chores that day, his mother came over and asked him if he was willing to do an extra chore for her. This chore was washing clothes in the Ganges River. Catatonia told her that he was happy to do that for her. His mother gave him the clothes that she wanted him to wash and then went straight down to the Ganges River. He looked at the filthy eater with a disgusted look on his face and then told himself that he was not going to wash his families clothes in this water. Pollution and specifically water pollution is a problem facing the entire world; however it is a serious problem facing India today. This includes most of Indians rivers. Unfortunately, Indians holiest river, which is the Ganges is involved in this situation. The Ganges River is located in the North Eastern part of India. This river is Indians holiest river because of the main pilgrimage site for Hindus to travel to and when they do they perform many rituals in it. We will write a custom essay sample on Water Pollution in India specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Water Pollution in India specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Water Pollution in India specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer This is one of many reasons of why Indians water pollution rates are very high. Three chief reasons of why Indians water pollution rates are very high are because of the poor education system, how the Indian Government is spending its money, and the condition of the infrastructure. The quality of the education system is one of the main reasons why the water pollution rates are very high in India. This is because it is not up to the standard as compared to many developed countries, such as the USA and Canada. Because this is the case, most of the citizens of India dont know how to take care of the environment. This includes how to dispose their garbage, how to make proper sewage systems, and how to clean water so that it can be drinkable or usable to wash things with. One of the problems that is causing the education system of India to become weak is the percentage of children who are not in school. Currently only about 1 1% out of all of Indians people who are under the age of 25 go to tertiary institutions. This is low because the world average of this particular problem is 23% (Praiseworthy, http://thievishnesss. Net). This affects the quality of water because if people do not attend school, then they will very little understanding about how to take care of the environment. Another one of the problems that is causing the education system of India to become weak is because of how high the literacy rates in the country are. This includes both men and women. This also includes people with disabilities. As of 2001, the percentage of the citizens in India that are literate is 65. 38%. This includes both men and women. As The mens percentage was 75. 85%. The womens percentage was 54. 16%. This increased from 5% in 1 901. The reason why it increased is because the education system has improved. (Government of India, http://an. Iv. Bib. UNESCO. Org). This affects the quality of water because if people know how to read, then they would better understand how important it is to take care of the environment. A third problem that is causing the education system of India to become weak is how high the poverty rates are. This includes both rural and urban poverty. Currently, around 38% of the citizens of India are poor. This is about 380 million people (SAD INDIA FOUNDATION, towpath. Gadding. Org). Also, 75. % of Indians population lives under $2. 00 per day (Hub, Carl and O. P. Sahara, http://www. BRB. Org). This shows that poor people usually have very large families and they need a great deal of water for their everyday life. The Indian Government is very aware about this situation. Since they are aware of it, they are introducing new things to improve it. One of the things that they are introducing is a r adio program that will inform the people about or how they should take care of the environment. They have introduced this because they believe that this program would cover more than 80% of the country and its population. In the end, this radio program could be helpful since a lot of people in India are or, but they still have access to radios. The Indian Government will then try to increase the awareness and understanding of the connection between human and the environment (Government of India, http://India. Gob. In). Another thing that the Indian Government is introducing is environmental education for school children. They have done this by introducing a program for schools that is all about sanitation and hygiene. This includes hand washing infrastructure to clean water, and washing storage (Government of India, http://www. Amandine. Org). To teach these children, they have made a cartoon book and an activity manual for teachers. The cartoon book and teachers manual is mainly for primary school students and teaches sanitation and personal hygiene. Since they are doing this, the possibility of the water pollution levels of their country would possibly be lower (Government of India, http://www. Cand ida. Org). Lack of education in India is not the only reason why water pollution rates are very high there. In addition to that, the way the government spends money is another reason why water pollution levels are so high. This is because they are not spending enough of their money on things that are necessary to improve their citizens lives. The Indian Government currently only spends about 3. 4% oftener money on health care and 12. 7% of their money on education (http://womb. Vicariousness. Com). Compared to some other countries in the world, such as the US (19. 3%), Norway (17. 9%), and Swedes (13. 8%) percent of the budget they spend on health care, the amount of money that India spends on health care is quite small (http:// www. Vicariousness. Com). Because of this, this is part of the reason why the water pollution rates are high there. Also, Compared to some other countries around the world, such as Mexico (24. 3%), Iran (17. 7%), and South Africa 18. 5%), the amount of money that India spends on education is not sufficient (http://www. Vicariousness. Com). As a result, this is also part of the reason why the water pollution rates are substantially high there too. As for how much the Indian Government is spending on reducing the high rates of river pollution, they have spent almost 20 billion rupees or 500 million US dollars (http://www. Gists. Com). This is causing the water pollution standard of India to be low. In addition to the lack of the education system and how much money the government is spending on things that their country would benefit room, industrialization is another reason of why the water pollution levels are very high in India. This is mainly due to how people and factories dispose of pollutants into water resources, but in some rivers, such as the Ganges, there are more reasons of why the water pollution levels are high. When people or factories do this, they cause various illnesses that people could catch if they use that water for bathing, drinking, or swimming. Some of the diseases that are caused by the polluted water are infections which are caused by animal waste and cancer (Humphreys, http://www. W. Suites 01 . Com). One water source that has been affected is the Ganges River. This is mainly because many of the cities that are along this river are extremely industrialized and most of those factories dump their pollutants into it because they dont have sufficient treatment facilities. This is also because of the many rituals that Hindus perform with it (http://WV. W. Gists. Com). One of these rituals that Hindus perform with the Ganges River is whenever a Hindu has died, they cremate that persons body and then scatter its ashes all around the river. They do this because they believe that it will cleanse the souls of their sins (V, http://www. Hundredweights. Com). A place where this happens frequently is in the city of Varnish, which is Indians holiest city that is located on the Ganges River. To support this, there are currently about 40,000 cremations that take place there every year (http://www. Gists. Com). This is As for industries dumping their pollutants into it, there are 29 Class cities (cities that have a population of over 100,000), 23 Class II cities (Cities that have a population between 50,000 and 1 00,000), and 48 towns that are scattered along the Ganges River that have many of their industries doing this. These industries include both tanneries and factories (Panicked, http://womb. Earth. Org). Some of the pollutants that most of these industries dump into the Ganges River are sulfuric acid, chromium sulfate, arsenic, cadmium, and mercury (Hammer, http://www. Smithsonian. Com). Another river that has been affected because of this happening is the Yamaha River. This is because people have been putting large amounts of partially treated and untreated water into it. The source of the pollution is along the banks of the river. ((Panicked, http://WV. Earth. Org). The Indian Government is very aware of his problem. They are solving it by prohibiting the disposal of pollutants into water resources and enacted a law that requires any people to request permission if they could pollute it. Specifically, they are putting in sewage treatment systems in 25 Class cities which are along the Ganges River ((Panicked, http://WV. Earth. Org). They have also spent over 4 billion dollars on trying to clean the Ganges River too (Paola, http:// web. Obscenest. Com). In conclusion, Indians water pollution rates are really high because of its weak education system, the ways of how the Indian Government is using its money, and the current status of the infrastructure. This is a prob lem because it affects the quantity of deaths that happen in this country and also makes a lot of the citizens health to be poor. This is also a problem because it could affect the rest of the worlds water polluted too. In order for this problem to be fixed, Indians Government needs to make sure that all of their county has proper sewage systems, a strong De cantonal system that clearly explains to its citizens about how to take care of the environment. Annotated List of Works Cited: Environmental Pollution in India. Gists. Com. N. P. , 2006. Web. 15 Mar. 2011. Government of India. Environmental Education, Awareness, Education India-Gob. In. N. P. , 2005. Web. 15 Mar. 2011.. Training. Government of India. Ministry of Human Resource Development. Status of Education in India National Report. New Delhi, India: National De cantonal Planning Administration, 2008. UNESCO. Web. 14 Mar. 2011. UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization) wrote this government publication because they wanted to inform people about how the educational system in India works so that those people would e able to understand more about the country of India. UNESCO mainly wrote this publication for people who like to learn more about how things work in other countries. This document is biased because it tries to persuade people that Indians education system is weak. This government publication is useful because it clearly explains a very detailed picture about Indians education system. This helped to provide evidence about Indians current education system. UNESCO does this by giving good examples of what the current status are about how Indians education system is progressing. One example of this is that they state the current literacy rate percentage for both men and women altogether. School Sanitation and Hygiene Project. Icelandic. Org. N. P. , n. D. Web. 15 Mar. 2011.. Hammer, Joshua. A Prayer for the Ganges. Smithsonian Magazine. Smithsonian. Mom. Web. 15 Mar. 2011. Joshua Hammer is a staff writer for the Smithsonian Magazine. He wrote this article because he wanted people to realize that they need to start doing something so that global warming stops. Joshua Hammer mainly wrote this article for people who are interested in reading about problems that are errantly hipping around the world. This article is biased because Joshua Hammer show s that India has many problems associated with water pollution. This article is useful because it gives a real life story about how the people that live by the Ganges River are affected. This article is also useful because it gives useful facts about what the Ganges River is and how it is used. Hub, Carl, and O. P. Sahara. What Is Poverty Really? The Case of India. population Reference Bureau. N. P. , 2011. Web. 14 Mar. 201 1. Carl Hub and O. P. Sharmas are from the BRB (Population Reference Bureau. The BRB is a publicly and privately funded organization looking at population and environment around the world. The main reason why Carl Hub and O. P Sahara wrote this article is because they wanted to inform people about how the current poverty status in India is progressing. The people who Carl Hub and O. P. Sahara mainly wrote this website is for people who want to understand why the country of India is very poor. This article is not biased because it is just stating the facts of the current poverty status in India. This article is useful because it gives great examples of what he poverty levels in India are at this moment. One of these examples includes what the minimum income of most citizens of India receive daily, which is 16 Indian Rupees or $0. 35 in US Dollars. How Countries Spend Their Money. Vicariousness. Com. N. P. , 2010. Web. 14 Mar. 2011.. Humphreys, Elizabeth. The Effects of Water pollution on Health. Suited (2009). Pant. Elizabeth Humphreys is a staff writer for Suited. She wrote this article because she wanted other people to know about how water pollution affects their health so that whenever they have an opportunity to swim in water that s polluted they will already know some of the health issues that they could receive. Elizabeth Humphreys mainly wrote this article for people who are interested in learning about environmental issues, such as air pollution and water pollution. This article talks about this situation that is currently happening all over the world. This article is biased because it tries to persuade and warn people about things that could happen to them if they swim in water that is polluted. This article is useful because it clearly explains how water gets polluted around the world and how it affects peoples health. This article is also useful because it gives some great examples Of some diseases/health issues that people could get if they swam in polluted water, such as cancer and tooth decay. Praiseworthy, Shave. Education System of India: Its Functions, Drawbacks, and Its Contribution. Thievishnesss. Net. N. P. , 13 July 2009. Web. 15 Mar. 201 1.. Paola, Kyoto Hotter. How Indians Success Is Killing Its Holy River. Time 19 July 2010. Obscenest. Com. Web. 15 Mar. 2011. Kyoto Thomas is a staff writer for Time. He wrote this article because they wanted other people to understand more about what causes rivers to be polluted. In this article, she is specifically talking about the Ganges River, which is the holiest river in India.

Why To Kill a Mockingbird Is Controversial to Some

Why To Kill a Mockingbird Is Controversial to Some There are several reasons that the content of Harper Lees great novel, To Kill a Mockingbird, is sometimes considered so controversial (and inappropriate for young audiences) that it is banned, challenged, as well as removed from school/library lists and shelves. Racial Injustice The topic of prejudice, discrimination, and out-and-out cruel hatred is not always a topic that we like to discuss with our children. After all, we want children to remain innocent, to be removed and protected from the injustices, unfairness, cruelty, and fear that so often prevails in this world. Children learn all-to-quickly that society is filled with goodness and kindness (or at least thats the hope), but theres also a great deal of evil, bullying and all the worst unkindness in human nature.  To Kill a Mockingbird explores both aspects of humanity. Theres the life-and-death struggle of an innocent black man against the discrimination and barbarity thats not only evident in the actions of their fellow townspeople but also in the pervasive prejudices of the legal system. Atticus is the only man who is brave enough to stand up against the mob-rule, in an effort to ensure that justice is served! He knows that the ignorance that prevails could cost him his life (and/or everything he holds dear), but the pursuit of justice and the defense of innocence is (to him) worth anything he could face. He is not deterred. Sexual Violence Although the lies that are told related to the rape are not explicit in nature, theres still the fact that Mayella Ewell put blame on Tom Robinson for a horrible violation. The indictment is completely fabricated, but even the claim of rape troubles some readers. For some parents, teachers and other gateways to reading, the topic of violation (even in an abstract sense) is unacceptable for school-age children. Physical Violence Its difficult to feel sorry for Mayella because we know what her claims mean to Tom (and to Atticus, as he attempts to defend an innocent man). We may dislike what shes saying (and doing), we come to some acceptance of the psychology of the poor, abused girl; she would do or say anything (in her fearful and browbeaten state). In addition to the abuse that Mayella experiences at the hand of her father, physical violence are brought to bear upon Atticus and his children. In their anger and ignorance, the townspeople attempt to use violence and fear; to control Atticus.Atticus refuses to back down. He refuses to allow an innocent man to falsely convicted and imprisoned, without at least a fight. Atticus says: Courage is not a man with a gun in his hand. Its knowing youre licked before you begin but you begin anyway and you see it through no matter what. You rarely win, but sometimes you do.   Heres another interesting question; how would the novel be different without controversial topics (and events)? Imagine what the book would be like if they sanitized the novel.

Environmental economics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Environmental economics - Essay Example According to Berlin, steps are underway to enable Germany meet its target to cut down carbon emissions by the year 2020 (Thomas n.p). The emissions will be down by 40% and later will do away with fossil and nuclear form of energy. The plan will affect companies’ profits from power plants as the government subsidizes the renewed energy. However, there is a rise in the cost of electricity, as consumers have to meet the costs of the subsidies for renewable sources of energy. The economy of Germany is growing well despite the rising costs of energy and has managed to reduce the energy intensity. Germany has become the largest exporter of solar inverters by the help of its renewable energy Act passed in 2000.Solar photovoltaic cells have provided cheap energy for the residents reducing the cost of electricity (Thomas n.p). Germany is aiming at the smart energy management concept by creating smart homes to create more comfort. Economics is an area that focuses on the growth of the economy in various ways such as job creation and other forms of developments. Renewable energy industry creates many jobs in Germany as highlighted in the article with individuals working in the industries that manufacture cells and another gadget that use solar, the wind, or wave energy. Employment is one of the major factors affecting the economy and since it leads to high incomes and a high standards of living. Development of the renewable energy facilitates and promotes developments in Germany with many people buying shares in the power generating companies (Thomas n.p). Since the renewable energy sector is labour intensive, many people are employed and can save for further investments. The payments received by the landowners in Germany after the company installs windmills in their land increases their income. Adoption of strong policies for the renewable energy will enable

News Director at a television station Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

News Director at a television station - Essay Example In the television business ratings are important. Programs that are able to obtain higher ratings can be used by television stations as cash cows that generate extra revenues because companies are willing to pay higher prices for ads aired in shows that have higher ratings. If I was faced with a scenario in which my news program had achieved low ratings during the last few weeks then I would choose the death of the celebrity as my lead story. Celebrities are icon figures that the general public follows closely. When a celebrity dies the entire media covers the story because people want to know about it. Another reason for choosing the celebrity story over the recreation parks story is because at the beginning of a news telecast it is always important to catch the attention of the viewers. A lot of television watchers are very impulsive viewers especially when it comes to watching news. If a person likes the initial news of the telecast the company increases the chances of retaining t he viewer throughout the entire program. The news story about the city council shutting down the recreational parks three days a week has a lot of social impact. A lot of mothers are going to be affected by this decision because they will have no place to take their kids to play during the days the parks are close down. This news story despite its importance to society would not be chosen by me as lead story when I have a sure top news story that can bring in better ratings. As I mentioned earlier in this industry one has to adapt and make decision depending on the circumstances. ... During political campaign season this story has greater appeal because of the political angle associated with the recreational parks story. During such as season due to the social impact and political implications I would not hesitate to choose this story as my lead. Both stories were good, but the story that brings better ratings should be the priority for a news program. The media industry is facing some tough times as the corporate world is spending less on advertising and the internet has provided a cheaper channel that is taking business away from traditional media such as television stations. Advances in information technology are allowing for faster distribution of information than ever before (Shermerhorn & Hunt & Osborn, 2003, p.348). References Schermerhorn, J., Hunt, J., Osborn, R. (2003). Organizational Behavior (8th ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons. Part II The television device was invented in 1927 by Philo Farnsworth. Television became very popular soon after it reach ed the market because the device fascinated people as it provided great entertainment for the entire family. The television industry has impacted our society deeply and has helped shape our culture. Many television programs were designed to educate people about social causes that affect culture. For example the 1980’s program A Different Stokes starting Gary Coleman showed Americans that biracial families worked because love has no color. A lot of other programs have taught people about different aspects of our culture. Law and Order fans have learned a lot about the American judicial system and its law enforcement. Television has helped document our history. The first space mission to the moon, Apollo 11, was covered by television in 1969. A lot of important events such as

The Rise of the Novel in the Eighteenth Century Essay Example for Free

The Rise of the Novel in the Eighteenth Century Essay The new form, i.e the novel is about certain realistic people living in a certain society and not about fanciful characters, supermen or monsters. On the contrary, the characters are ‘individualized’: which means that every individual, person or character ( ordinary or extraordinary) is independent from other individuals. In the past, individuals or characters in the prose works never stood for themselves: they stood for certain abstracts or qualities :Mr. Greedy, Mr. Angry, Mrs. Domineering, ..etc. With the rise of this literary form, individuals are drawn realistically as independent, regardless of their social status or personal capacity. The characters are analyzed in detail, and shown as complex individuals, affected by social pressures. b) The rise of the middle class: The new middle class in England ( consisting of merchants, lawyers, businessmen, doctors,..etc.) were very educated, but they were unlike the upper classes who were taught in Greek and Latin. The middle-class people could read in English, so they among the readers of then novels at that time. c) Educated women: Women became educated at that time , and so they were a crucial factor in producing a readership for fiction. They benefited from the rise of the novel because they were not educated in Greek and Latin but in history, English grammar, geography,..etc. d) Better education for the middle classes coincidedwith a period of great leisure for women in the middle and upper classes. This left a vacuum in their lives which demanded to be filled. Men, also, demanded imaginative works because they looked for other interests beyond their jobs. Thus, the novel opened new real worlds. e) The increase and spread of newspapers during the eighteenth century is evidence of this interest. Many periodicals such as The Spectator and The Tattler were popular. Addison and Steele, the editors of those periodicals created characters such as Sir Roger de Coverley-an individualized character with essay-like short stories. f) Thirst for travel books characterized by realistic incidents and realistic characters during a period where the British Empire was expanding show the people’s need to learn about other people from other cultures and other lands with different traditions and manners..Many of the eighteenth-century novels were written in the form of travel books such as Robinson Crusoe and Gulliver’s Travels to satisfy this thirst. g) The thirst of the reading public to learn about the manners, and circumstances of other classes and localities. Richardson’s Pamela is a plan to write a series of letters which provide examples of the correct way of behaving in different social situations. h) The novelists, too, felt it was their duty not just to inform bu t also to teach moral lessons. This shows the moral usefulness of the novel. Thus while the novelists introduce their readers to new social worlds, and show the manners of others, they provide the best moral way for their readers to behave. This triple aim- to reveal, to educate, and to encourage moral behavior was an important feature of the eighteenth-century novel. i) As a consequence, the novels were detailed , long, and therefore expensive which means that the rich only could buy them. But by the middle of the eighteenth century, there appeared circulating libraries. So, people could borrow novels free of charge. That was a very important development. j) The rise of modern industrial capitalism, also, emphasized the idea of individualism. Because of industrial capitalism, people started to believe that the individual could choose and decide his future because it taught people how to earn and keep money. Thus, because of those social factors, novelists started to study the individual. In the past, characters were seen as general concepts, without emphasis on their personalities. With the rise of modern industrial capitalism and individualism, the social attitude changed. Novelists started to study the individual’s ehavior, appearance , feelings and materialistic attitude. They chose characters from the real society around them, and who were individualized to the extent that most of them named their novels after the main characters. Some of the themes to be discussed The Moral Significance in Robinson Crusoe (Points to be considered about the theme of moral and spiritual re-awakening) 1- In his novel, Robinson Crusoe, Defoe emphasizes the moral element and â€Å"the wisdom of Providence in our life.† 2- Although R. Crusoe blamed his fate and bad luck at the beginning of his adventures, he would gradually believe that his misfortune was â€Å"a judgment of Heaven†, or a punishment of God because he disobeyed his father, and went to sea ignoring his advice. 3- When his ship was first overtaken by a strong storm, Crusoe prayed to God that if He spared his life, he would directly go home. However, when the sea became calm again, he forgot his vows. 4- The ship was overtaken once again by another storm, and the captain told him that it was â€Å"the hand of Providence† punishing Crusoe for his disobedience and breaking his vows to God. 5- The captain warned him that henceforth he would meet with â€Å"disasters and disappointments† if he did not go back to his father. What the captain said proved to be true. 6- On his next voyage to The Canary Islands, Crusoe was kidnapped by pirates and became a miserable slave for two years. 7- On his next voyage to Africa, â€Å"the Hand of God† punished him again. A strong storm struck the ship, and all the other seamen were drowned except Crusoe who found himself in a deserted island. 8- It was not until several horrible incidents took place in the island ( the earthquake, the hurricane, his illness, and the terrible dream), that Crusoe realized for the first time his ‘wrongdoings’, that he lived in wickedness â€Å"without desire of good or consciousness of evil.† 9- From now on, Crusoe starts to re-evaluate his life, to pray to God sincerely, and to reappraise his duty to God. Thus, after much soul-searching, he reaches self-discovery and spiritual re-awakening. 10- The novel ends with Crusoe being a mature individual, in full control of his wealth, using it not for pleasure but to help his old friends and relatives. Industrial Capitalism, Individualism and the Rise of the Novel 1-The rise of the novel during the eighteenth century is greatly associated with the rise of individualism at that time. 2- Individualism stressed the fact that every individual was independent from other individuals, and as a direct result of industrial capitalism, it emphasized that the individual had to choose and decide his future. Modern industrial capitalism, also, taught people how to earn money ,and how increase it. Thus it brought emphasis on the individual and his money. 3- In the past, characters in the romances stood for certain qualities(e.g. Mr. Greedy, Mr. Angry,†¦etc.) and not for themselves. 4-In the eighteenth -century novel, individual characters are drawn as independent regardless of their social status or personal capacity. They are portrayed as complex characters, affected by social pressures. 5-Eighteenth –century novelists such as S. Richardson, H. Fielding, and D. Defoe studied the individual’s attitudes, feelings, and motivations. Defoe emphasized individualism by writing a novel that has one central character with independent individual characteristics. Likewise, Richardson and Fielding concentrated on the individual and named their novels after their main characters. 6-The modern industrial capitalism made people pay great attention to money: how to gain it and how to keep it. In the earlier prose fiction, the main character had moral ideas, and thought only of virtues and good deeds. The eighteenth-century writers became more realistic and dealt with the only interest of the individual at their time, i.e. money. All Defoe’s characters pursue money, and they pursue it very methodically according to the loss and profit of book-keeping. Thus Robinson Crusoe leaves his father’s house and the secure life of the middle class to seek more money. This materialistic point of view began to have a tremendous influence to the extent that idealistic moral values were no longer the core of stories, but the individual and his struggle to gain money. Points to be stressed about The Character of Robinson Crusoe 1. Robinson Crusoe is the central round character who learns the moral lesson which Defoe is trying to convey to his readers. 2. From the beginning, Defoe presents him as an individual endowed with a capability for moral development because of his natural possession of moral sensitivity. 3. As events open, he appears as lacking a certain degree of moral insight and self knowledge, but gradually he gains moral and spiritual re-awakening and self discovery. 4. This gradual change can be traced in three stages in his life: a) When the novel opens, Crusoe leaves home in disobedience of his father and without asking for God’s blessings in search for more wealth, neglecting his father’s advice concerning the advantages of the middle class. Crusoe ,then, goes through four adventures in the sea during which he experiences many misfortunes, and has very narrow escapes from death. At this stage, Crusoe’s character is shown as discontented, rash, romantic ,lacking reason and any sense of moral duty towards God and father. Despite the dangers he faces, he never realizes the moral lesson or that these dangers are a punishment of God for his wrongdoings. He blames his bad luck, fate, or his companions. b) The second stage in Crusoe’s moral and spiritual development starts with his journey to the coast of Guinea which ends up in his shipwreck, the death of all his fellow sailors and his own survival after he swims to a remote deserted island. During this stage, Crusoe suffers, first, physically to provide for his food, shelter, and security. As he struggles to do this, he shows his great abilities of a resourceful, energetic, and inventive individual, although he has never had any knowledge of mechanics or mathematics. At the same time, however, he has many moral reflections which show his mental stress. c) The final stage of this process of gradual moral and spiritual re-awakening culminates in the episode his illness and dream after the earthquake. For the first time, Crusoe recognizes that he is the doer of all his misfortunes, and realizes that he is responsible of all his wrongdoings for has neither asked God for help when he is in danger, nor thanked Him when he is rescued. With this admission of guilt, Crusoe moves quickly in the road of moral and spiritual recovery. Thus he sincerely prays to God for help for the first time. After that, he feels not only physical but also spiritual ease and comfort. As he triumphs over the cannibals, saves Friday and the captain of the ship and his crew, and finally saves himself, he reaches complete satisfaction 5. Thus Crusoe is portrayed as a complex round character who reaches his moral and spiritual growth, after many experiences, .

Globalisation, Organisational Behaviour And Organisational Development

Globalisation, Organisational Behaviour And Organisational Development The modern world is smaller yet global market that undergoes rapid change. Today, we are confronted with the scenario of a changing workforce that is multicultural and diverse in beliefs, ethnicities and behaviours. For instance, in the United States one-quarter of the American workforce is represented by minorities with this figure expected to grow in the future. Also, women account for fifty percent of the paid workforce in the United States. This diversity presents organisations with both opportunities and unique challenges. A diverse workforce in a global market is great advantage, but while the benefits are obvious, there are also various issues that diversity throws up, these issues need attention for work to take place in peaceful and efficient manner. In this modern world that has been shrunk through transport and communication it is paramount for work teams to consist of employees with different traits and behaviours. It is the job of a manager to effectively manage these varied individuals and mould the behaviours to bring about harmony and benefit the organisation keeping in mind the companys core values and business aims. Organisational Behaviour is defined as, Actions and attitudes of individuals and groups toward one another and towards the organization as a whole, and its effect on the organizations functioning and performance. While Organisational Development is stated to be, Theory and practice of planned systematic change in the attitudes, beliefs, and values of the employees through creation and reinforcement of long-term training programs. Its objective is to enable the organization in adopting-better to the fast-changing external environment of new markets, regulations, and technologies. Both Organisational Behaviour and Development are interwoven and their concepts are capable of acting mutually. Some of the areas where they are used together could be in trust building exercises, team-work strategies, critical listening, cultural exchange and also behaviour modification. What is Behavioural Modification? All organisations are set up with particular core goals and aims in mind. Various resources including money, machines and manpower are utilised to achieve these goals. Modern businesses often refer to their Human Resources (manpower) as their biggest and most important asset and it is widely understood that this single resource plays a vital and irreplaceable role in the attainment of success and the achievement of an organisations objectives. Thus, human behaviour at work plays an essential role in the smooth functioning of day to day activities as well the targeted long term goals. It is essential for a manager to posses the skills to identify and predict undesired behaviour and bring about required changes in order to make human behaviour at work productive and supportive to the organisations goals. In business language the art of modifying and moulding human behaviour is known as behavioural modification. It is a conscious effort on behalf of a supervisor or manager to reinforce each successive step that moves an individual towards or away from a desired or undesired behaviour in the work environment. Behavioural modification is rooted to the fact that behaviour depends on consequence and is concerned with inducing new behavioural patterns in an individual that would benefit the organisation. What is Reinforcement? Reinforcement is a term that is heard often when discussing behaviour modification and is essential to conditioning. In such a context it refers to anything an individual might find rewarding. Reinforcement is related to the psychological process of motivation and is environmentally based. Reinforcers are external environmental events that follow a desired behaviour. Reinforcement could be either positive or negative and is likely to strengthen the response and increase the probability of repetition. Burrhus Frederic Skinner and his contribution to the field of Behavioural Modification B.F. Skinner, an American psychologist and professor at Harvard University is considered to be one of the pioneers of behavioural modification. Most modern day behavioural modification concepts are a result of Skinners work and his most renowned theory is the Reinforcement Theory. Skinners theory is based on the Law of Effect which states that an individual is highly likely to repeat behaviour when followed by favourable consequences (reinforcement) and tends not to repeat a particular behaviour when it is followed by an unfavourable consequence. The Reinforcement Theory Professor B.F. Skinner articulated the major theoretical constructs of the Reinforcement Theory. Skinner was of the opinion that internal requirements and drive of an individual are inconsequential and that individuals can be taught to exhibit behaviours based on events that follow the behaviour. The theory focuses on overriding unwanted behaviour and influencing required behaviour aided by the use of rewards and punishment that are dealt out as a consequence of the behaviour. This method of behaviour change is commonly known as operant conditioning. There are two essential prerequisites for the effective application of the Reinforcement Theory in real life scenarios, they can be found below. Managers must be able to find a consequence that is strong enough to have an impact on the targeted employee. Managers must be able administer a consequence in such a manner that it is easy for the employee to understand the relation between the behaviour that is targeted for change and the resulting consequence. According to the theory managers must know if they are required to increase or decrease the probability of an event. Once this has been decided a manager must then determine if the use of a positive or negative consequence is appropriate. Finally, a manager must consider if it is correct to apply or withhold the consequence to gain a desired behavioural change. The answer to these dilemmas is answered through four unique alternative consequences: Positive Reinforcement, Negative Reinforcement, Punishment and Extinction. They have been explained in greater detail below: Positive Reinforcement Positive reinforcement encourages behaviour by following a response with a favourable consequence. An employee who receives recognition or any other reward is likely to repeat the behaviour. It is advisable for management to have a dedicated program for positive reinforcement as it has been documented to increase job performance and satisfaction Negative Reinforcement Negative Reinforcement is often confused with punishment. While punishment is aimed at decreasing the probability of an undesirable act, negative reinforcement is the termination or withdrawal of an unpleasant consequence following a desired behaviour. Negative reinforcement strengthens and increases the repetition of the behaviour. Punishment The use of punishment as a managerial strategy is becoming more common. It is applied by confronting an undesired behaviour with an unwanted or uncomfortable consequence and it is meant to discourage repetition of the behaviour in question. Punishment discourages certain behaviour but does no have a direct impact on enforcing a positive behaviour either. Punishment has the potential to sour work relationships and thus must be used with caution after evaluation of all relevant aspects of the situation. Extinction Extinction is the act of withholding positive reinforcement with the aim of decline and eventual cessation of an unwanted behaviour. Extinction is equally capable of ending good/acceptable behaviour as well if the manager unknowingly fails to recognise an employees contribution over time. The most common example of unwanted extinction is when an employees suggestions and inputs are ignored by a superior, it often leads to the employee holding back his/her opinions in the future and the chance that a helpful input will never see the light of day increases. Something Wanted Something Unwanted Something Given is a reward and a positive reinforcement is punishment Something Denied is punishment is a reward and a negative reinforcement Reinforcement Schedules The timing of reinforcement is paramount to its success, in professional and academic circles the timing of reinforcement is referred to as reinforcement scheduling. In real life work settings it is next to impossible to continually reinforce desired behaviour. Since continuous reinforcement is not practically viable, reinforcement is commonly run according to an intermittent schedule. C.B. Ferster along with B.F. Skinner developed an intermittent system with the following four schedules; 1) Fixed Interval A reinforcer is applied after the passage of a certain period of time post the occurrence of the desired behaviour. e.g. A manager praises individuals in his team only once a week at the Monday morning meeting. In this case the interval is one week and the employee receives recognition for any amount of work done in that specific seven day span. 2) Variable Interval A reinforcer is applied at a random stage with no identifiable or definite period of time. e.g. The management team promotes an employee to position of higher authority after an eight month period after recognising his contribution and consistent performance over an unrelated period of time. 3) Fixed Ratio A reinforcer is applied only after a fixed number of desired events have passed. e.g. A sales executive receiving a bonus after hes achieved a certain targeted number of sales 4) Variable Ratio A reinforcer is applied only after a certain number of desired results, however, the number of desired results changes from time to time or with different situations. e.g. An employee receives time-off with pay or an award The above four schedules are referred to as methods of Partial Reinforcement, where responses are reinforced only part of the time. Reinforcement schedules and their effects on behaviour are explained further with the table below. Schedule Description When applied to Individual When Removed by Manager Organizational Example Continuous Reinforcement Reinforcer follows every response Fast method for establishing new behaviour Faster method to cause extinction of new behaviour Praise and recognition immediate to every response Partial Reinforcement Fixed Interval Response after specific time period is reinforced Some inconsistency in response frequencies Faster extinction of motivated behaviour than variable schedules Daily, weekly or monthly pay check Variable Interval Response after varying period of time (an average) is reinforced Produces high rate of steady responses Slower extinction of motivated behaviour than fixed schedules Promotion, Recognition, Transfer Fixed Ratio A fixed number of responses must occur before reinforcement Some inconsistency in response frequencies Faster extinction of motivated behaviour than variable schedules Piece rate, Commission on sales Variable Ratio A varying number (average) of responses must occur before reinforcement Can produce high rate of responses that is steady and resists extinction Slower extinction of motivated behaviour than fixed schedules Awards, Bonus, Time-off Source (Table): O.Behling, C.Schriesheim and J.Tolliver Present Theories and New Directions in Theories of Work Effort Journal of Supplement Abstract Service of the American Psychological Association 1974 A run of the mill behavioural modification technique consists of the following four steps: Stating the desired behaviour as objectively as possible Measuring the current incidence of desired behaviour Providing the correct consequence to reinforce the desired behaviour Maintain a systematic assessment of behavioural change post the behavioural modification program While the Reinforcement Theory is often criticised, the insights the theory provides into individual learning and motivation will always be of importance. Criticisms Limitations of Reinforcement Theory There are many criticisms levelled against the Reinforcement Theory, the strongest accusing the system of completely ignoring cognition amongst human beings. It has been argued that a purely theoretical approach fails to address the impact that any alternate motivations might have on human behaviour. The Reinforcement Theory also fails to explain altruism (selfless deeds) whose sole aim is to help another person. Looking past these criticisms the Reinforcement Theory does still have further limitations in practice, a few which are listed below. Limitations of the Reinforcement Theory 1) Reward and punishment are bound to alter from person to person based on personal preferences and also based on the circumstances under which they are dealt out. Rewards might vary in their attractiveness from one employee to the next and likewise punishment too can have a range of reactions from rage to total indifference. 2) Managers are often confronted with situations that require them to re-think their reward and punishment strategy as it is quite common for reinforcers to lose their value/effect as time goes by. Human nature, be it a child or grown professional causes us to lose interest or become oblivious to receiving rewards and reprimands once they are seen as a norm. Just like a child loses interest in candy as a reward, a professional isnt always driven by just the promise of a bonus or a few extra days of paid leave and can often be seen to expect it as part of normal procedure and not an incentive. 3) It is difficult for the manager to be in complete control of all sources of reinforcement. It is very common for an employees peer group to be a stronger reinforcer than any kind of punishment. 4) The system of rewards does not always bring about an internal change, the desired change is just a response to the reward offered. Once the reward is withdrawn, the likelihood of the employee reverting to old behavioural patterns is high. 5) Punishment is not always easy to deliver. It is an instrument that must be used with care. Punishment must be consistent and unavoidable, it must follow the undesired act closely (i.e. it must be immediate) and must also be firm. 6) Punishment can lead to anger, fear and a range of other negative emotions that are undesirable at work. These emotions will be associated with the manager or superior who inflicts punishment. Conclusion A

Characters in Animal Farm Essay

The over worked and malnourished animals over throw the humans in charge and took power; only to find that the obligation of freedom maybe more dangerous. Out of all the animals, however, one is sure to stand out. That animal is Boxer, the farm’s hardest and strongest worker. George Orwell’s novel, Animal Farm, is an allegory that reflects events leading up to the Russian Revolution of 1917, and then on into the Stalinist Era in the Soviet Union. Through a depiction of Boxer, George Orwell allows the reader to make a discernment of the Russian proletariat’s loyalty and hardworking skills, by presenting him as an allegiant, reputable, diligent worker. From the beginning to the end, Boxer remains a diligent worker despite the abundance of toil. After the Rebellion, â€Å"Boxer [seems] more like three horses than one; [and] there [are] days when the entire work of the farm seems to rest on his mighty shoulders.† (46) Therefore, Boxer is precisely the hardest worker on the farm for the reason that he agrees to do the majority of the labor on the farm. In comparison to Mollie and Moses, who depart from the farm without doing any work, Boxer agrees to do additional tasks. Furthermore, after Boxer’s severe depravity, â€Å"Boxer [refuses] to take even a day off work, and [makes] it a point of honor not to let it be seen that he [is] in pain.† (114) Thus, Boxer is an eager worker for the reason that he never renounces his job. On the contrary, Mollie â€Å"[is] late for work every morning and [excuses] herself by saying that she [has] overslept.† This proves that Boxer loves to work. When the going gets bad he sees working as the solution. Boxer is truly the farm’s hero because of his hard work. In addition to his resolution to work harder, Boxer demonstrates fidelity. After Snowball’s expulsion, Boxer is worried about the farm, but he is not smart enough to figure things out on his own. Rather than thinking for himself, Boxer forces himself to believe others. Boxer tries to think things  over for himself, but all he can come up with is, â€Å"If Comrade Napoleon says it, it must be right,† and he takes up a new personal motto: â€Å"I will work harder.† (70) For this reason, Boxer illustrates allegiance for coinciding with authority. Furthermore, when Napoleon begins executing other animals, Boxer can only say, â€Å"I would not have believed that such things could happen on our farm. It must be due to some fault in ourselves. The solution, as I see it, is to work harder.† (94) Therefore, Boxer is devoted considering that he always falls back on his personal motto: Napoleon is always right. Boxer is loyal to the farm animals and allegiance is w hat makes a worker a good worker. Throughout the most troublesome times on Animal Farm, Boxer is praised by the animals. As time goes on, the animals are much inspired by Boxer’s work ethic than by Squealer’s clever speeches. â€Å"With his tremendous muscles [Boxer] always [pulls] them through. Boxer [is] the admiration of everybody.† (46) Hence, Boxer is admired by the other animals for the reason that he is an inspiration for them. Unlike the pigs who are considered the most intelligent, it is Boxer, who commands the animals simply because of his work ethic. Moreover, during the winter, little progress is made; the animals can not feel so impelled about it as they felt before. However Boxer never loses heart, â€Å"the other animals [find] more inspiration in Boxer’s strength and his never-failing cry of ‘I will work harder!’† (85) Ultimately, Boxer is honored by the other animals as a result of the animals being propelled by Boxer. In comparison to Squealer’s adroit speeches, the other animals find more inspiration in Boxer. This clearly identifies that Boxer’s role and personality is highly respected by the animals. These are just some of the examples that prove why Boxer is am allegiant, reputable, diligent worker. These three traits are what make Boxer unique. Unfortunately, his loyalty makes him easy to manipulate. Boxer is a very important character and without him Animal Farm would not exist. Boxer is the one who gives everyone hope and a reason to work harder. For these reasons Boxer is the farm’s hero and is one of the most beloved characters in Animal Farm.

Unethical Behavior in Forensic Science

The acquittal of Peter Nickel in February of 2004 from assertions that he was responsible for the death of his long-time employee Gary Rowley in a major car accident was a   when Nickel’s Defense lawyer, Gary M. Wilson, accuses the Detroit police of tempering evidence.Crowley was said to be on the driver’s seat while Nickel was at the truck’s cargo bed. A faulty roadway and a blown-up tire was said to be the major cause for the accident as Cowley was thrown off the truck and was pinned under the truck’s cargo bed when it veered off the road, rolled over and hit a telephone pole.Both victims were said to have been intoxicated prior to the accident but accusations on Nickel’s intentional involvement in the incident was put into question when Wilson argued that the police had switched the original blown-up tire to conceal evidence and obtain conviction.Mr. Wilson’s allegations were later found to be true when a sheriff deputy admitted to have made the switch. Automotive forensic scientist, Sal Fariello, gave his expert opinion on the case, testifying that most DUI crashes cannot be convicted by mere alcohol intoxication alone since most accidents would have happened anyway even if the persons involved were sober.There seems to be rampant cases involving incompetent law enforcers and investigators who tamper with evidences in order to easily solve the case and move on to another. The case exemplified here is a classic scenario of intentional tampering of evidence and authorities should consider how to contain and prevent such mistakes from recurring in crime scenes.Reference:Responsibility in DUI Laws, Inc. (2004, February 13). Police Evidence Tampering in High Profile DUI Vehicle Homicide Case. Retrieved April 19, 2009, from http://www.ridl.us/articles/policeTampering.html.

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Europeans and Native Americans essays American Indians were the first inhabitants of this land we call home. They were here way before the United States was created. The Native Americans did not even know the term America until the "white man" came. The "white man" influenced the natives; however, the Native Americans also did the same. There were more than two thousand tribes in the Americas when Columbus first came to the West Indies in 1492. In the next five hundred years, due to European settlement, many of the tribes were destroyed or threatened by disease, war, and government policies. Native Americans experienced outcomes with their encounters in which they resisted and had much difference between the Europeans. Even though they suffered great loss in land and culture, their pride and traditions live on. The English were one of the encounters the Native Americans had to face. The English tried to overrule Chesapeake, but the Indians learned quickly to use guns and other weapons, so the Indians were able to outnumber the English. The English did not have any women at one point and were starving to death, so they demanded the Indians to nourish them. Indian made war and killed male warriors of opponent tribes but adopted the women and children. When Powhatan people neglected or defended their property, the English murdered women and Indian children. During most of the seventeenth century determined colonies fought to control the land and labor needed to secure profits from tobacco, sugar, and rice. After a long struggle with violence and high mortality, the colonies along the southern Atlantic began to prosper. Stability was brought on a high price in which the English introduced slavery. The Navigation Acts designed to regulate colonial trade in ways that only benefited England was destroying the Chesapeake society. South Carolina suffered from social instability in the result of ethnic and religious diversity. Worsening Indian relations and resulted in...

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Some large cities are experiencing serious problems related to rapidly increasing inflow of countrymen who, for various reasons, are forced to leave countryside and look for a better life in cities. Over the past few decades, most economies have been developing in such a way as to provide propitious conditions for rapid urbanization. Industrial development plus numerous revolutionary technological breakthroughs that took place in the twentieth century have resulted in the appearance of large factories. The growing demand for paid workforce has attracted country dwellers, leading to massed withdrawal of human resources from rural areas. In terms of personal affluence, the concentration of social and economic activity in the city has made urban environment more attractive and promising. Although governments of some countries have realized the danger of such economic tilts, most rural lands are still experiencing severe shortage of financial support resulting in persistent skepticism of many people about life in the countryside. It is to say, that it takes a lot of innovative thinking and political will on the part of a government to balance out the local economy, as well as the realization of the fact that harsh mandatory or administrative measures imposed on people to make them stay in rural areas alone will not suffice. It will be not before we manage to create economically healthy and prosperous environment in the village that we shall be able to speak about things in the countryside taking a turn for the better. We have considered the negative of withdrawal of human, financial, industrial and technological resources from the village from the standpoint of rural life. This long-lasting tendency seems to be making it hot for cities too. In many cities, especially in world capitals, unending inflow of immigrants seeking wealthy and prospect, has contributed to rapid and uncontrolled population growth, resulting in tough and fierce competition in the sphere of management and acute contradictions between management and hired staff, entailing collisions of interests, progressive social stratification and environmental deterioration. All this has led to a number of doubtful achievements and hazards, which appear to be making city life far less comfortable than it used to be a short while ago. Today, Mexico city is the world’s largest capital, counting about 22 million people. Mexico is a large industrial city, and it appears to be sharing the fate of most industrial centers of the world, barely coping with the influx of countrymen. The acceptance by the Mexican government of certain trading rules in line with international agreements, a paramount condition of the country’s participation in the WTO, has impacted rural economy, causing a dramatic economic collapse in the agricultural sector, resulting from the imbalance between local prices and those imposed by WTO regulations. This has triggered a new spate of internal migration from the countryside to the city. Unfortunately, problems that the city of Mexico has accumulated by now are not limited to overpopulation. It is not the overpopulation itself that poses most serious difficulties, but also ineffectual measures taken by the city government. To say the least, with the inflow so intensive and so evident, the city’s townplanning committee does not seem to be fully taking into account the migration problem, or they simply fail to keep pace with the time. The city infrastructure fails to keep up with the population increase, so people arriving in Mexico take up residence in shabby makeshift homes on the city’s outskirts or in slum districts. These districts lack water and gas supply, sewage, electricity, services, etc. , and there are no advanced waste disposal systems whatsoever. This has resulted in absolutely unfavorable environmental and epidemiologic conditions. Most of garbage and human wastes remain on or close to the surface of the earth, and large parts of it are carried by winds for miles away and into the city. Unsanctioned dumping may spoil water and cause massed poisonings or outbreaks of infection. This in turn directly affects the quality of the food, increasing the risk of its contamination with harmful substances and bacteria. There is another menacing phenomenon resulting from uncontrolled population growth and topped off by the city’s geographic position. Permanent release of carbodyoxide by factories, coupled with the release of automobile waste gases is putting the city on the brink of suffocation. Statistically, automobile emissions make up about 60% of all emissions, and, considering the increasing vehicle ownership, there seems to be no way to reduce automobile emissions. The realization that internal combustion is the greatest contributor to the accumulation of emission gases in the atmosphere has prompted automobile designers to equip vehicles with catalytic converters, but today there are too few such cars to make the effect palpable. The city is placed on a plateau fenced off with high mountain ranges. The cold air arriving from behind the mountains forms a cap over the whole valley preventing the warm and stuffed city air from getting away. This lack of natural convection contributes to the accumulation of harmful emissions in the area and may turn the whole place into a gigantic gas van. The continuing economic growth, extensive factory development and ever-growing population in Mexico City are aggravating the pollution problem. The accumulation of heavy metals in the air can undermine peoples’ health and result in serious progressive hereditary diseases, increasing the occurrence of cancer, chronic poisoning, high infant mortality, cardiovascular diseases, allergic reactions, innate orthopedic malformations, poor cognition and many other physical and mental abnormalities. Progressive intake of harmful substances directly affects the nation’s genetic makeup, and it is hardly possible now to precisely foresee all consequences of these destructive influences. Active use of depths of the earth, resulting from ever-bulging demand for minerals and oil has triggered rapid and unpredictable underground processes, resulting in unstable aquifers and causing much water to go deeper into the ground, making it less reachable. As long as the city is situated in a seismologically unstable region with an active volcano in its direct proximity, further deterioration of the bed may result in disastrous earthquakes, which, in turn, are likely to wake up the volcano and plunge the whole area into an apocalyptic calamity. Apart from the destruction of the bedrock, destruction of aquifers is fraught with the disappearance of water in some places and appearance of excessive amounts of it in others. This may cause lack of water supply and actual drying out of some areas and lead to unexpected floods elsewhere. The formation of empty spaces in the bed has caused some areas to sink significantly over the past few decades, which increases the possibility of flooding. At the same time, the emptying of the aquifers due to extraneous consumption of water by the growing city has led to a dramatic reduction of natural water resources, threatening to leave the whole city without water in the foreseeable future. According to last estimates, every second the city of Mexico takes 7,250 gallons of water, which amounts to an Olympic-size swimming pool per minute. With the consumption of water so intensive, there is a grave possibility that the amount of water remaining in the aquifers will be insufficient. Needless to say, this is much more serious a threat that inability to afford a car or a TV. In some areas, shortage of water is already tangible, and it has resulted in social upheavals. Changes in bedrock structure and the progressive subsidence of the ground can also result in the destruction of sewer and drainage systems, increasing the risk of contaminating fresh water and thus threatening to impair its quality. As we can see, all the aforementioned threats arise from one major phenomenon – overpopulation. Needless to say, increasingly intensive use of water and resources is attributable to population growth and human thirst for relative prosperity and every individual’s desire to occupy his or her niche in the booming economy. However, this brief outline of most significant problems and dilemmas shows that if we continue to use natural resources in the current fashion, the place we live in will soon become absolutely unlivable. In this respect, the city of Mexico can be presented as a small replica of our entire planet, which, with the same tendencies and phenomena persisting, will soon be confronted with similar problems. There is less and less room for industrial and vehicle emission gases and, like it is with the aquifers under Mexico city, the increasing encroachment upon minerals and oil resources is affecting the earth’s bedrock, creating pre-conditions for unpredictable and destructive earthquakes and massive destruction. With the situation so serious and menacing tendencies so evident, many governmental authorities of Mexico City, as well as state authorities express their concern about the country’s future and come up with lots of ideas, which are likely to prove helpful and effective in overcoming these negative tendencies. Whichever idea is the best, just one thing is evident today, and this is the necessity to create positive incentives and favorable conditions for people to live and work in the countryside in order to stem the growth of city population. As air quality issue appears to be the most evident one, the city government has developed a number of solutions aimed at reduction of industrial and vehicle releases into the atmosphere. By incorporating advanced technological systems and usage of higher quality fuel, it is possible to significantly improve air quality. Recently, a state-of-the-art air quality monitoring system has been implemented, so government officials and specialists have obtained control over air quality. Now every vehicle is required to feature advanced converting devices that are capable to cut down the release of toxic substances. In November 1989, the city Government introduced the so called No Driving Day (NDD), when car owners are supposed not to use their vehicles on certain days. The results of this innovation were a considerable reduction of traffic congestion and gasoline use. The use of refined types of fuel and the installation of waste gas purification and vapor recovery equipment are innovative measures regulated by the Clear Air Act Amendments of 1990. Hypothetically, these measures can be instrumental in reducing the amount of vehicle-related chemicals in the air and thus improve air quality. However, these ideas, though effective theoretically, have proven less feasible in reality. As a rule, advanced technological solutions are something than few people can afford, and most people find it less expensive to bribe authorized inspection employees and use old vehicles than purchasing new automobiles or applying expensive technologies. Not infrequently, the cost of implementing new equipment exceeds the size of fines by far, so people prefer to pay fines rather than spend money on equipment. For this reason, the results of the latest innovations have turned out to be less tangible than expected. The NDD policy has also revealed a number of unexpected actions on people’s side. Instead of increased usage of public transportation, Mexico City dwellers found a way around it by purchasing more vehicles in order to have a reserve automobile to be used on No Driving Days. Actually, this nullified the immediate positive tendencies that showed during initial stages of the NDD policy. Other attempts to limit air pollution include increased vehicle ownership taxation and boosting the price of fuels. The advocates of these measures believed that this would discourage people from using cars and thus reduce the impact on the environment. All these measures have proven less effective than expected, since most Mexico residents simply cannot afford new vehicles, to which the new regulations actually spread, and prefer to use old vehicles without having to purchase new equipment. Now, having discussed a few measures that have been taken over the last several years in an attempt to solve the ecological problem, we can see that they are not always applicable or effective. As there is just one major problem that all these issues stem from – the overpopulation – all efforts to change things for the better must be concentrated on solving overpopulation problem. Although mandatory measures, such as inspections, bans, taxation and can have a temporary effect, there is no way to achieve significant improvement in air and water quality but by using wise economical and political instruments. Once again, in order to encourage city dwellers to move to rural areas, healthy economic environment must be created in agricultural regions. This is only feasible through establishing price standards acceptable for country dwellers and creating an ample ground for agricultural business. In other words, in order to stop the growth of city population, we have to make the village no less livable than the city. Unfortunately, very little is being done to improve life in the country, since it would take a decision by the Mexican government to unilaterally withdraw from the WTO, which can entail a conflict with the USA, the founder of the WTO. Today, the Mexican government still prefers to use doubtful methods of forcing the poor to leave the city – by raiding their encampments, as it did in the late 1990s. 1. Phil Hearse. â€Å"MEXICO CITY Environmental Crisis, Socialist Solutions. Environment and Urbanization, Vil. 11, No 1, 53-78 (1999) 2. Ramiro Tovar Landa, 1995. â€Å"Mobile Source Pollution in Mexico City and Market-Based Alternatives† Published by the Cato Institute. Editorial and business offices are located at 1000 Massachusetts Avenue, N. W. , Washington, D. C. , 20001